The Basic Function Of Strategic Management Accounting Essay

The Basic Function Of Strategic Management Accounting - Essay Example In terms of capital investment decisions, Tesco Plc should set up more grocery outlets in other communities. Based on prior feasibility studies done on a prospective new location, Tesco will use both investor funds (retained earnings reserved for branch expansions), and long-term borrowings to finance another big Tesco grocery outlet. In terms of the evaluation of multidivisional companies, Tesco Plc should conduct classify each multi-divisional company as cost and revenue centers. Each company will generate its own financial statements. Thus, the financial statements will indicate the number of a multi-divisional company under Tesco Plc that generates profits. Likewise, the same financial statements will vividly indicate the number of multi-divisional companies generating net losses (Garrison, 2003). The strategic management accounting system of Tesco Plc focuses on ascertaining if the company’s final reports conform to international accounting standards.The strategic managem ent accountant of Tesco is a driving force to develop a global accounting system is the desire to underwrite securities in any, or all, of the world's capital markets using a single set of financial statements. Currently, the Tesco Stocks are listed in the stock exchanges. A positive incentive for a capital market to support a global accounting system is the enhancement of its volume of business by being able to participate in underwritings in other capital markets.   Reinforcing the positive incentive is the realization that a capital market, which ignores the development of a global accounting system, may find itself with a unique set of accounting standards while the rest of the world relies on a common set of accounting standards. This would lead to an irretrievable loss of business (Brigham & Houston, 2002). Heely (1993;25) emphasized â€Å"the globalization of corporate activity, coupled with

History questions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

History questions - Essay Example Abraham Lincoln told â€Å"enemy is at your door, wait not to meet him at your hearthstone, meet him at the doorsill, and drive him from the temple of liberty, or pull down its pillars and involve him in a common ruin† (McPherson 212). This should be considered as evidence that our country is not safe anymore. Abraham Lincoln also mentioned that he thoroughly disliked to comment on the various tactics employed by historical leaders who played an instrumental role in earlier wars. Government always must be â€Å"of the people, by the people and for the people† and victory always must be â€Å"an anti slavery triumph† (McPherson 218). Jefferson Davis strongly disagreed on excessive individualism that were ruling the states. He pointed out that this kind of extreme individualism won’t bring any good to the state. Instead, it will only create neglect towards teamwork. He also emphasized that â€Å"war meant it’s for all and not for single†. This means, war is always for a group of people and not for a single person. He told â€Å"each state has the right of revolution† (McPherson 240). Political revolution or any kind of revolution always placed the state in a crucial, authori tative position and the right of revolution is for everyone. 2. If as Mr. Sparks contends what is Past is prologue, there is much in the Civil War Era that is relevant to your lives today. Please provide 3 examples of how a study of The Civil War helps you understand the United States in 2010. If a civil war breaks out in the Unites States in 2010, it, will, perhaps mark the end of this country. There would be violence, bloodshed, riots and insurgencies all over the country, leading to loss of millions of human lives as well as the ultimate breakdown of the country’s vast social and economic infrastructure. A study of the civil war has helped us to understand the

Thyroid Cancer in Women Essay Example for Free

Thyroid Cancer in Women Essay Introduction Thyroid cancer is admittedly the commonest endocrine malignancy often detected among young patients and frequently among the women. In most populations, the median age of its detection tends to be quite low, actually below 40 in most cases. It is currently the fastest growing cancers among women. Despite the fact that the cancer is still quite rare, it continues to be increasingly on the rise among women across the globe and especially pregnant women. Most experts are not quite certain on the causes despite the fact that they have been able to identify the risk factors at play. Essentially, there are four main types of thyroid cancer: Follicular, papillary, medullary and anaplastic. Papillary and follicular thyroid cancers are jointly referred to as differentiated thyroid cancer since their prognosis is more favorable relative to the other types. Among most young women, their pregnancy periods are usually accompanied with differentiated thyroid cancer. The management of this type of cancer poses risks due to the concerns of maternal and fetal health. With most women experiencing rises in differentiated thyroid cancer during pregnancy with a prevalence rate of 14 per 100,000, it has become necessary to discern the management of the ailment (Smith, Danielsen, Allen Cress, 2003) Literature review Differentiated thyroid cancer (DTC) has a higher incident among women within  their reproductive ages. It has long been speculated that the association between human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG), estrogen and DTC exists. Numerous studies have pointed out an association between high parity and the risk of DTC in pregnant women (Kravdal, Glattre, Haldorsen, 1991). However, the data on the association between DTC and estrogen seem to be gravely inconsistent with some studies indicating a pro-proliferative effect on the thyroid cancer cell lines occasioned with estrogen while other studies point at estrogens stimulatory effect on the adenomatous and normal thyroid only (Lee et al., 2005) Clinical data also conflicts; one study revealed a high risk of DTC infection among women exposed to oral contraceptives containing estrogen with another reporting no association between DTC and usage of exogenous hormones Data on the effect of HCG on DTC tends to be very discordant and non confirmatory. Despite the fact that rising levels of HCG during pregnancy tends to stimulate the production of thyroid hormones, there has not been any coherent evidence that links HCG and DTC. On the basis of women cohort using fertility drugs for treatment, there was no association observed between use of HCG and DTC. Simply put, according to available epidemiologic data, high parity and the risk to DTC are associated; but there is still some lack of clarity with regard to outcomes of DTC diagnosed at pregnancy (Mack, Preston-Martin, Bernstein, Qian, Xiang, 1999). As a result of the overt female to male ratio in the incidence of thyroid cancer, particularly the differentiated cancers, within their reproductive years, epidemiological studies have seriously focused on the role of reproductive exposures among women. Most studies have generally come up with findings that concur with the role of reproductive exposures. There is a minimal contribution of reproductive factors in the etiology and development of thyroid cancer among women. In fact, several case control studies have revealed increased risk with abortion or miscarriage, particularly during the first pregnancy (McTiernan Weiss Daling, 1987). Arguably, this is one of the most recognized reproductive risk factor for differentiated thyroid cancer among women. There is an elevated risk of developing thyroid cancer among women who use lactation suppressants and this risk seems to increase with the number of pregnancies in which the suppressants are used (McTiernan, Weiss Daling, 1984). Risk factors for thyroid cancer A risk factor refers to anything that plays a role in influencing a person’s chance of contracting a particular disease. Admittedly, there are several risk factors behind any particular cancer. It must however be emphasized that risk factors do not tell everything, rather, they illuminate, to a less degree, the probable cause of the disease. It must also be asserted that the absence of a risk factor does not absolve one from contracting a particular cancer. Experts have also come to the conclusion that having one or several risk factors increases the chances of one contracting the cancer. In the case of thyroid cancer, there are a number of risk factors that have been reported and they will be discussed below. Gender and age have been noted to be among the leading risk factors of thyroid cancer. Globally, women are three times likely to be affected by thyroid cancer compared with their male counterparts. On the issue of age, thyroid cancer can develop at any particular age. However, two thirds of the cancer cases are more prevalent between ages 20 and 55.On the other hand, anaplastic thyroid cancer tends to be diagnosed after 60 year of age (Braunstein, 2011). Exposure to radiation has scientifically been proven to be a risk factor in the development of thyroid cancer. The main sources of the radiations could emanate from medical treatments, nuclear weapons and fallouts from power plant accidents. Moderate levels of exposure to radiations increase the risks of follicular and papillary cancer. Such sources include: †¢ Low to moderate doses of x- ray treatments that were used to treat children with tonsils, acne ad other head and neck pains †¢ Persons who have received radiation therapy for lymphoma in the head and neck are more inclined to develop follicular and papillary cancer. †¢ Early exposure to radioactive iodine especially at childhood increases the risk of contracting follicular and papillary cancers. There are certain types of thyroid cancer that are normally associated with genes. Actually, 20% of patients suffering from medullary thyroid cancer (MTC) tend to possess an abnormal gene that facilitates the development of the disease (Cooper et al, 2009). The gene is usually passed to offspring. The thyroid cancer that emanates from genetic abnormality is referred to as familial medullary thyroid carcinoma. In the case of papillary thyroid cancer, there is some element of heredity but the genetic basis hasn’t been established. Intake of dietary iodine is a leading environmental influence of thyroid cancer prevalence in particular. Follicular thyroid cancers tend to be more prevalent in geographic locations with low iodine in diets. In the United States, there is adequate iodine as it is normally added in diets. Diets low in iodine may increase to incidence of papillary thyroid cancer when the victim is also exposed to some radioactivity. Management of thyroid cancer Approximately 10% of thyroid cancer cases that occur in the reproductive years of most women tend to be detected during pregnancy or early in their post- partum period (Cooper et al, 2009). In the case of a pregnant woman, treatment and subsequent follow-up tend to be similar to the non pregnant women save for the prescription and use of radioactive iodine. There are certain differences in the manner in which differentiated thyroid cancer and medullary thyroid cancer are treated. However, the most important considerations in the treatment of thyroid cancer in pregnant women must entail: †¢ Effect of the cancer on the pregnancy †¢ Effect of the pregnancy on the cancer †¢ Effects of the management modalities on the outcome of the pregnancy Managing DTC during pregnancy will mainly fall between two scenarios: The first entails women diagnosed from the beginning during pregnancy while the other one will include women who had previously been infected who have now become pregnant or are anticipating pregnancy. Each of the groups brings with it peculiar therapeutic challenges that demand for a clinical approach guided by the disease stage, preferences of the patient and the particular stage of the pregnancy. Thyroid surgery at pregnancy There is no objective consensus on the ideal timing of surgery for DTC women in labor. Generally, individualized decisions tend to be based on the wishes of the patient and other risk factors. However, in the event that a surgery has to be performed as a result of a large tumor or even the patient’s concern then it is better performed during the second trimester of the pregnancy to reduce the risk of abortion that is bound to occur if the surgery is performed in the first trimester. In case there is no life threatening risk, then it is recommended that the surgery be done after delivery (Cooper et al, 2009). Radioiodine therapy during pregnancy This therapy is usually contraindicated at pregnancy since it exposes the fetus to highly radioactive elements that may impair its normal development. Therefore, women scheduled for this therapy must exclude their pregnancy phase. Postpartum radioiodine therapy must be deferred for 6-8 weeks after breastfeeding has stopped. Thyroid hormone replacement and pregnancy Such a therapy must commence with some pre- pregnancy counseling on the importance of undertaking frequent thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) and of adjusting dosage. Personal refection Admittedly, the numerous incidents of DTC among women and in particular pregnant women have become issues of great concern. Despite the numerous research that has been undertaken on the topic, none has concretely provided the main reason why women continue to be victims of the disease. Nonetheless, if women will be screened early before reaching their prime years, the chances of being treated of the diseases are high and as such the development of the fetus will not be hampered. Additionally, despite the fact that certain risk factors are beyond our control, the ones under human control, such as iodine presence in diets, ought to be addressed and enforced. Conclusion There is no doubt whatsoever that the incidents of thyroid cancer are on the rise and especially among women. The data that has been adopted in the research is indeed suggestive despite the fact that it fails to fully convince. It must be admitted that mankind, despite making several advancements in medical technology, has contributed to enhancement of thyroid malignancy by adopting therapeutic radiations as well as nuclear fission. Hence, the resulting high thyroid cancer prevalence has been buoyed by genetic mutation, environmental carcinogens and autoimmune phenomena. With proper clinical attendance, thyroid cancer can be properly managed with exposing the mother or the fetus to any danger. It is therefore recommended that women should always be screened early in life and regularly to avoid the compromising situations that the find themselves in whenever they are pregnant. References Braunstein, G. (2011).Thyroid Cancer. Boston: Springer. D. S. Cooper, G. M. Doherty, B. R. Haugen et al.(2009).Revised American thyroid association management guidelines for patients with thyroid nodules and differentiated thyroid cancer. Thyroid, 19 (11), 1167–1214, 2009. Retrieved September 24, 2012 from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19860577 M. L. Lee, G. G. Chen, A. C. Vlantis, G. M. K. Tse, B. C. H. Leung, and C. A. Van Hasselt(2005).Induction of thyroid papillary carcinoma cell proliferation by estrogen is associated with an altered expression of Bcl-xL. Cancer Journal, 11(2), 113–121.Retrieved September 24, 2012 from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=Induction%20of%20thyroid%20papillary%20carcinoma%20cell%20proliferation%20by%20estrogen%20is%20associated%20with%20an%20altered%20expression%20of%20Bcl-xL. McTiernan A. M., Weiss N. S., Daling J. R. (1984). Incidence of thyroid cancer in women in relation to reproductive and hormonal factors. Am. J. Epidemiology., 120: 423-435.Retrieved September 24, 2012 from http://aje.oxfordjournals.org/content/120/3/423 McTiernan A., Weiss N. S., Daling J. R. (1987). Incidence of thyroid cancer in women in relation to known or suspected risk factors for breast cancer. Cancer Res., 47: 292-295.Retrieved on September 24, 2012 from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3791213 O. Kravdal, E. Glattre, and T. Haldorsen. (1991).Positive correlation between parity and incidence of thyroid cancer: new evidence based on complete Norwegian birth cohorts. International Journal of Cancer, 49(6) 831–836.Retrieved September 24, 2012 from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1959987 Smith, L., Danielsen, B., Allen, M., Cress, R. (2003). Cancer associated with obstetric delivery: results of linkage with the California cancer registry. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 189(4), 1128-1135. Retrieved September 24, 2012, from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14586366 W. J. Mack, S. Preston-Martin, L. Bernstein, D. Qian, and M. Xiang (1999).Reproductive and hormonal risk factors for thyroid cancer in Los Angeles County females. Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers and Prevention, (8)11, 991–997.Retrieved September 24, 2012 from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=Reproductive%20and%20hormonal%20risk%20factors%20for%20thyroid%20cancer%20in%20Los%20Angeles%20County%20females

To Kill A Mockingbird Reading Journal Essay Example for Free

To Kill A Mockingbird Reading Journal Essay 1) Choose one complex character from the novel. Using quotations from the text as supporting evidence, examine and explain the devices used by the author to create this complex character. Then, describe how this character has contributed to the development of the plot in Chapters 7-11. Scout is a complex character in the novel â€Å"To Kill a Mockingbird†. From the beginning of the story, Scout goes against the stereotype of the â€Å"prissy little girl that plays with her dolls.† She prefers to play with Jem and Dill instead. She prefers to wear denim overalls instead of dresses. Throughout the story, her interactions with others help her grow up from a more wrongful thinking child into a wonderful, thoughtful one. In the beginning of the story, Scout is talking to Miss Maudie and says, â€Å"Jem said that maybe he died and they stuffed him up in the chimney.† This angers Miss Maudie because Scout does not understand what she can and cannot say about people. By the end of the story, Scout realizes what her words and actions can do to others. She is able to comprehend the concept that Atticus told her that is â€Å"climbing into his skin and walking around it.† During chapters 7-11, Scout and Jem notice that the knothole in a tree has been filled and react in different ways. While Jem is very upset about it since that was Boo Radley’s way of trying to be friendly to outsiders, Scout is more disappointed but not heartbroken. This acts as a comparison to see how Jem is growing up and starting to learn to think about the situation from the other person’s point of view. Later on, Scout gets into two confrontations with people who insulted Atticus because he was defending Tom Robinson. From the first confrontation, she is taught by Atticus that even though you may not win something, you should still fight it to the end to uphold what you believe in. Examining Language as a Means of Establishing Historical and Cultural Context 1) Select a text excerpt from Chapters 7-11 that demonstrates the author’s use of language patterns or word choice to establish the historical and/or cultural context of the novel. Post the text excerpt that you have selected into the space provided below. Then, explain how the author uses either language patterns or word choice in the excerpt to give the reader clues  about the time period in which the novel is set or the nature of the culture in which the story occurs. â€Å"†Scout,† said Atticus, â€Å"nigger-lover is just one of those terms that don’t mean anything – like snot-nose. It’s hard to explain – ignorant, trashy people use it when they think somebody’s favoring Negroes over and above themselves. It’s slipped into usage with some people like ourselves, when they want a common, ugly term to label somebody.† â€Å"You aren’t really a nigger lover, then, are you?† â€Å"I certainly am, I do my best to love everybody†¦ I’m hard put, sometimes – baby, it’s never an insult to be called what somebody think’s is a bad name. It just shows you how poor that person is, it doesn’t hurt you.†Ã¢â‚¬  (11. 144) In this excerpt, the author’s use of language patterns and word choice lets readers know that the story takes place in the South a long time ago. This is because the language the author uses is informal and not one that people would use today. The author’s use of word choice let’s us know that the story takes place in an area where racism is still a very big issue. It is even stated in the excerpt that people who think when somebody wants to put the rights of black people over themselves used â€Å"nigger-lover†. However, Atticus only wants equality and that terms like this do not hurt you because they are just names. Examining Allusions 1) Review Chapters 7-11 of the novel, locating one allusion within the text that helped to clarify your understanding of an element or elements of the novel (example character, setting, plot, etc). Post the text excerpt that contains this allusion into the space provided below. Then, explain why this text excerpt represents an allusion and indicate what this allusion helps you learn about one or more elements within the novel. â€Å"†You sound like Cousin Ike Finch,† I said. Cousin Ike Finch was Maycomb County’s sole surviving Confederate veteran. He wore a General Hood type beard of which he was inordinately vain. At least once a year Atticus, Jem  and I called on him, and I would have to kiss him. It was horrible. Jem and I would listen respectfully to Atticus and Cousin Ike rehash the war. â€Å"Tell you, Atticus,† Cousin Ike would say, â€Å"the Missouri Compromise would have licked us, but if I had to go through it again I’d walk every step of the way there an’ every step back jist like I did before an’ furthermore we’d whip ‘em this time†¦ now in 1864, when Stonewall Jackson came around by- I beg your pardon, young folks. Ol’ Blue Light was in heaven then, God rest his saintly brow†¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"Come here, Scout,† said Atticus. I crawled into his lap and tucked my head under his chin. He put his arms around me an d rocked me gently. â€Å"it’s different this time,† he said. â€Å"This time we aren’t fighting the Yankees, we’re fighting our friends. But remember this, no matter how bitter things get, they’re still our friends and this is our home.† (9. 100) The allusion shown in this excerpt is that the Civil War was recent enough that veterans were still alive. This let’s us know about the time that this story takes place. Knowing that it is the 1930s, we are able to understand why racism is a big issue there. This allusion also helps us understand how Atticus thinks, as tells Scout that even though there is a racial battle going on, that everybody are still humans and Americans at the end of the day. Short Answer Question 1) Jem is particularly disturbed, not by Mrs. Dubose’s death, but by the gift she leaves him—a blossom from her Snow-on-the-Mountain camellia plant. Reflect upon this incident, explaining what you believe to be Mrs. Dubose’s true reason for giving Jem this gift. Then, explain why this message was so upsetting to Jem. I think that Mrs. Dubose’s true reasoning for giving Jem the camellia blossom was to show him that even though they were beaten down, the camellias would still grow unless pulled from the root. This symbolizes what Mrs. Dubose had to deal with and what Atticus is dealing with. Mrs. Dubose was suffering from her morphine addiction and although she could have stopped being sober from morphine, she braved the storm and died clean. Even though Atticus is dealing with all the controversy surrounding him defending a black man, he  is still going to fight to defend his cause. I think that this message was so upsetting to Jem because it was one of his first experiences with learning something like that. He learned that while she seemed mean, that she was still trying to teach them about the complexity of humans. That no matter how much you are beaten down, that you are still able to overcome it. 2) As children grow and mature, it is not uncommon for their understanding of their parents to shift and change. The plot of To Kill a Mockingbird reflects many shifts in the way that Jem and Scout view their father. Reviewing what you have read in Chapters 7-11, identify the incident that you believe has the most profound effect on the way the children view their father. Then, describe the effect that this incident has, explaining why. The experience with Tim Johnson the dog has left a big impact on how the kids view Atticus. From this event, both Scout and Jem learn something new about Atticus and something that is very contrasting with his personality. Scout thought that compared to the fathers of her classmates, Atticus was boring. However she learns that there are things to be proud of Atticus for. Jem understands and tells Scout that there are things that Atticus doesn’t want them to know about him. That no matter how much you think you know about somebody, that there is always something that is hidden. When Miss Maudie’s house catches on fire in chapter 8, Boo was the one who gave Scout a blanket. Despite Scout, Jem, and Atticus learning this, they decide to keep it amongst themselves 3) In spite of the fact that she is their relative, Aunt Alexandra is a harsh critic of both Scout and Atticus. To better understand Aunt Alexandra’s often severe personality, adopt the advice that Atticus offers Scout in Chapter 3 of the novel when she is angry with Miss Caroline—that it’s impossible to understand a person until you look at things from their point of view. Writing from Aunt Alexandra’s point of view (using the pronoun I and pretending as though you are Aunt Alexandra), explain the reasons behind some of her more questionable actions in an attempt to find valid reasons for Aunt Alexandra’s harsh treatment of her relatives. 4) Jem’s attitude towards Arthur â€Å"Boo† Radley undergoes a change in Chapters 7-11 of the novel. Starting with Chapter 7 and going through Chapter 11, explain the evolution that occurs in terms of how Jem feels about Arthur, identifying at least three critical events that cause his opinion to change. In To Kill a Mockingbird, Jem and Scout’s attitude towards Boo Radley changed. In chapter 7, Scout and Jem see the things that Boo Radley left for them in the knothole in the tree. Jem acknowledges that Boo Radley is trying to make contact with others and have them think differently of him. When the knothole gets filled with cement, Jem gets upset and cries because he knows that Boo has lost his way of communicating with them. In chapter 8, when Miss Maudie’s house caught on fire, it was Boo that gave Scout a blanket when she was cold. When they talk to Atticus about this, Jem feels that Boo has been deprived of a way of communicating with the outside world and deals with his first experience of trying to understand that there is both good and bad within a person. This is because while he says that Nathan Radley is crazy, he has never hurt them and probably never will. Throughout these chapters, Jem begins to see Boo as less of a monster in the neighborhood and more of a shy person who has been depraved of his way of trying to make friends. 5) Scout’s understanding of and attitude towards Calpurnia undergoes a change in Chapters 7-11 of the novel. Starting with Chapter 7 and going through Chapter 11, explain the evolution that occurs in terms of how Scout feels about Calpurnia, identifying at least three critical events that cause her opinion to change.

Ecological Theory Typical And Atypical Child Development Social Work Essay

Ecological Theory Typical And Atypical Child Development Social Work Essay Analyse the contribution of Ecological theory to our understanding of typical and atypical child development, and discuss this model in relation to the factors and possible interventions for child abuse The importance of insight regarding the parent/child bond has always been a component of social services custom, but the significance has not always been indentified of the interaction that the environment plays on a parents ability to act in their childs best interests (Department of Health, 1999). A significant breakthrough in the knowledge of child abuse appears to have emerged through the application of an ecological model of child maltreatment, The ecological paradigm is currently the most comprehensive model we have for understanding child abuse (Gallagher 2001; 76). Such a perspective has generally been derived from theory based on Bronfenbrenners (1979) pioneering work, in which he defines to which The ecology of human development involvesthe progressive, mutual accommodation between an active, growing human being and the changing properties of the immediate settingsthis process is affected by relations between these settings and by the larger contexts in which these settings are embedded. (Sidebotham, 2001; 105). The importance of an ecological standpoint in the perception of abuse is, firstly, that it widens the boundaries of the unfavourable effects of maltreatment on children beyond just the parent-child relationship to consider the familial and social context in which such abuse occurs. Second, the ecological model is transactional; in the sense that it acknowledges the individual and the immediate and wider influences as actively interacting with each other. However, it should be noted that this ideology holds some limitations in the sense that it would not seem to account very well for child sexual abuse. Any pairing together of juxtapositions forms of behaviour as occurs with child abuse or child maltreatment, is bound to result in some loss of specificityIt would be foolish to think that ecological models are the final word on child abusethere is not single solution to abuse (Gallagher 2001; 77). Specific hazardous factors contribute to parents abusing their children. Although maltreatment does not often occur without numerable of these factors interacting in the same household simultaneously. Firstly, the risk of abuse increases in any household exposed to significant stress, regardless if this stress arises from unemployment, poverty, neighbourhood violence, a lack of social support, or an especially demanding infant (CDC, 2006). Bronfenbrenners predominant layer, or microsystem, refers to the collaborations that occur within the childs immediate environment. The childs own genetic and social characteristics affect the habits, behaviour and patience of their peers, For example, a temperamentally tiresome infant could disaffect their parents or even create friction between them that may be sufficient to damage their marital relationship (Belsky Crnic, 1995). Also, the relationship between any two individuals in the microsystem is likely to be influenced by the introduction of a child. Fathers, for example, clearly influence mother-infant interactions, happily married mothers who have close supportive relationships with their husbands tend to interact much more patiently and sensitively with their infants than mothers who experience marital tension, little support from their spouses, or feel that they are raising their children on their own (Cox et al, 1992). In regards to the emphasis on family, the notion to which a parent regards their competence and rates the performance of their parenting role is also a relevant matter. Parenting competence has been noted as problematic among abusive parents (Marsh Johnston, 1990) and linked with increased abuse possibility. Whilst acknowledging that improvement of parenting capacity is an important objective one must be cautious in concluding that improved competency in parenting directly results in a reduction in child maltreatment as observations on interactions based under experimental conditions rarely reflect in daily life (Gallagher,2001;248). Direct exposure to abuse can have a dangerous impact as abused children tend to function less adaptively than their non-abused peers in many areas (Cicchetti, Rogosch, 1993). According to Hipwell et al (2008) Children in a caring and loving environment feel more secure in their immediate surrounds in regard to the microsystem, they develop greater self-confidence, are altruistic and show higher signs of being empathetic. These children are also shown to have larger IQs throughout their schooling life, and show lower levels of anger and delinquent behaviour. As Bronfenbrenners ecological model would present, higher degrees of affection can even buffer a child against the negative implications of otherwise precarious environments (Bartley Fonagy, 2008). Several studies of children and teens growing up in poor, dangerous neighbourhoods show that the single ingredient that most clearly distinguishes the lives of those who do not become delinquent from those who do is a high level of mat ernal love (McCdord, 1982). The Mesosystem is the connections or interrelationship among such microsystems as homes, schools, and peer groups. Bronfenbrenner argues that development will be increased by supportive and strong connections between Microsystems. For example, children who have instigated attached and secure relationships with parents have a tendency to be accepted by others and to have close, supportive peers during their development (Perry, 1999). According to McAdoo (1996) a childs competence to learn in a schooling environment is dependent upon the quality of the teaching provided and also the degree to which their parents place value upon education capital and how they interact with the teacher and vice-versa. However, this can also impact negatively at this level as when deviant peer groups or friends of the child devalue scholastics, they will tend to undermine that childs school performance in spite of teacher and parents best efforts. Numerable research has revealed that exposure to abuse had a severe negative impact upon a childs academic functioning. Schwab-Stone et al (1995) concluded that as the consistency of maltreatment increased this had a direct negative correlation with academic performance. Likewise, Bowen (1999) found in a sample of over 2000 high school students that exposure to community and school violence put limitations on school attendance, behaviour and results. Warner and Weist (1999) revealed that children from low income families who are witnesses to household and neighbourhood violence demonstrated atypical symptoms of PTSD, anxiety and depression. The symptoms continue upon the latter to include atypical externalising behaviours such as anger, inability to form relationships and a decline in academic performance. Surviving on a low income in a bad neighbourhood does not make it impossible to be the caring, affectionate parent of healthy, sociable children. But it does, undeniably, make it more difficult (Utting, 1995, p. 40). Children from low-income households may display more behavioural troubles than their better-off peers. However, according to Gorman-Smith (1998) family factors, including parenting practices do not predict childrens exposure to violence. He suggests that other community factors rather than their household income will influence and operate on children and those family factors are not powerful enough to mediate or moderate their effects. Such studies have often found there to be an important correlation between communities in which citizens have described a high level of community cohesions and children safety, with an increase in child abuse being linked with a negative sense of community identity. Self-care has the most negative effects for children in low-income neighbourhoods with high crime rates (Marshall et al, 1997). Children who begin self-care at an early age are more vulnerable to older self-care children in their communities who can damage or abuse them. These children are more likely to have adjustment problems in school and are more likely to use after-school with socially deviant peers who do not value school and undergo criminal activities. Predictably, then the positive effects of organised after school programs on academic achievement are greater for children in low-income neighbourhoods (Mason Chuang, 2001). Bronfenbrenners penultimate layer, or exosystem, consists of contexts that children and their peers may not be aware although nevertheless will influence their development. For example, parents work environments are an exosystem influence. Childrens emotional relationships at home may be influenced considerably by whether or not their parents enjoy their work (Greenberger, ONeal, Nagel, 1994). In a similar fashion, childrens experiences in school may be influenced by their exosystem, by a social integration plan taken on by the school council, or by job cuts in their community that result in a decline in the schools revenue. Negative impacts on development can also result when the exosystem breaks down. For example, Sidebotham (2002) has shown that households that are affected by unemployment, poor housing and poor social networks are more likely to be involved in increased occurrences of child abuse. Whose comments are justified next to Beeman (1997) who concluded that a lack of so cial support and a high consistency of negative attitudes towards available networks all contribute towards the chances of child maltreatment. The majority of the research on the impact of mothers employment concludes towards a small positive influence on most children (Scott, 2004). Children whose mothers are in employment are more confident and show more admiration for their mothers in contrast to those mothers who do not work. The effect of the mothers work on influencing attitudes and results in school become less apparent, with many studies showing no difference (Gottfried, Bathurst, 1994). Muller (1995) in his large study on the latter topic distinguished a small but comprehensible negative difference on the effect on maths results if that childs mother was in employment. However, this difference seemed to be based on the fact that mothers who do not work as much are less engrossed with their childs work and are less likely to oversee the childs work continuously after school, rather than from a long-lasting deficit brought about by maternal employment in the early years. Thus, working mothers who find ways to provide such supervision and who remain involved with their childrens schools have kids who do as well as children whose mothers are homemakers. Research evidence intuitively shows that when a man becomes unemployed, it places a strain on his marriage; which in turn leads to an increase in marital conflict and both mother and father show more signs of depression. The effects of these conflicts eventually show the same characteristics as families who are experiencing divorce; both parents appear less coherent in their attitudes towards their children, become less loving and less effective at monitoring them. Similarly, children, in turn respond to this situation as they would during their parents divorce by exhibiting a series of atypical behaviours which can include depression, anger or becoming involved in delinquent behaviour. According to Conger et al (1992), the likelihood of abuse at all levels, shows an increase during times of households unemployment. However, according to Berger (2004) parents who are experiencing divorce but who have a supportive framework and emotional support from friends are increasingly more like ly to provide a safe and affectionate environment for children in comparison to those who are occupied in social isolation. Gorman-Smith and Tolan (1998), in their study of the effects of divorce, did not find that family structure and other familial influences had an independent involvement towards the prediction of exposure to abuse in comparison to that of other risk factors such as the breakdown of traditional social processes in the community. Low income parents are characterised by contributing towards their childs atypical development as Evans (2004) concludes that parents of such a nature are less likely to communicate with their children, spend less time engaging with them in intellectually stimulating activities and in turn are harsher and more aggressive in their discipline techniques. Not all children follow the same development pathways and there are certain factors that influence their development. For example, children below the poverty line are half as likely to recall the alphabet and have the ability to count by the time they enter the first years of schooling. This development according to Brooks-Gunn (1995) also applies, and is maintained through to adolescence as older children in poverty are twice as likely as their counterparts to repeat a year of school and are less likely to go onto higher education. In keeping with Bronfenbrenners model, parental values on the best way to deal with discipline will be largely in coherence with the larger culture in which they reside. According to Lockhart (Ecology of Development; 345), by striking a child it will usually stop the chid from repeating the behaviour. Although research evidence suggests that children who are spanked, like children who are abused at later ages are less popular with their peers and show higher levels of aggression, lower self-esteem, more emotional instability, higher rates of depression and distress, and higher levels of delinquency and later criminality (Mostow Campbell, 2004). Bronfenbrenners concluding layer is that of a macrosystem which entails a broad, overarching ideology in which the child is embedded, and whose principles dictate how a child should be treated and how discipline should be distributed. These principles differ across macrosystems (cultures) and sub-cultures and social classes and can have a direct influence on the types of experiences a child will have in all levels of their ecological system. To cite one example, Belsky (1993) discusses how the incidence of child abuse in families (a microsystem experience) is much lower in those cultures (or macrosystems) that discourage physical punishment of children and advocate nonviolent ways of resolving interpersonal conflict. Similarly Clarke (1997) revealed how at the level of the macrosystem, a Government policy that ensures parents have the option to take paid or unpaid leave from their jobs to see to family matters could provide a significant intervention towards child abuse allowing pare nts more free time to observe their childs development and resolve difficulties that may arise within their child. The debate that encircles the surrounding links between culture and child abuse is a complex notion, which has resulted in a myriad of concerns. For instance, recent statistics of child maltreatment has indicated that ethnic minority children are substantially more at risk of abuse than their Caucasian counterparts (U.S Department of Health, 2006). However Lassiter (1987) has countered, showing that these minorities may be over-represented to the relevant services. Lassiter argues that biased statistics do not take into consideration other influencing factors such as socioeconomic status and the level of schooling received. Without considering socioeconomic factors that may also influence the parent and child, research risks inadvertently concluding that factors that increase abuse potential are because of race or ethnicity, or are universal. The contextual risk variable that looks to have the biggest part in forecasting child maltreatment is having a family member who has also been a direct victim of some form of previous abuse. For example, A parent suffering from the stress of having been victimised herself or having another family member who has been victimised may be overwhelmed and more disturbed by the childs behaviour and may, therefore, have a lower threshold for viewing the childs externalizing behaviour as problematic. Primary or universal support targets the community as a whole, with generic initiatives, campaigns and community-based services that support parents and families without entry criteria. Their aim is to prevent problems such as child abuse and family breakdown (Healy Darlington, 1999). MacMillan (1994) in describing child abuse interventions found it necessary to distinguish between the differing forms of prevention, including that of primary intervention to which he describes as any manoeuvre that is provided to the general population or a sample of the general population or a sample of the general population to reduce the incidence of child maltreatment;, and secondary prevention, early detection of a condition with the aim of shortening the duration of the disorder, and tertiary prevention, prevention of recurrence of maltreatment and impairment resulting from abuse. MacMillan further explained the difficulties in prevention in regards to psychological and emotional maltreatment, which accounts for a high number of reported cases but difficulty arises when evidence needs to be collated, and if emotional abuse is accepted as a form of abuse, then the distinction between primary and secondary prevention or indeed tertiary prevention becomes less clear. Osofsky (1995) in his research on primary prevention has called for a nationwide campaign that would address to change the attitudes toward maltreatment and lower peoples tolerance of child abuse. Support for an ecological approach to child welfare is evident in the Framework for the Assessment of Children and their Families (Department of Health et al, 2000), which stresses the need to consider not only the factors relating to the child and their parents, but also the wider context in which children live when assessing their needs, acknowledging the impact of social and community factors on childrens welfare. This is also justified through the Every Child Matters document which refers to the concept of Making a positive contribution; being involved with the community and society. Involving local communities in the prevention of child abuse was acknowledged by Nelson and Baldwin (2002) who asserted that the Every Child Matters model has the potential to involve communities enthusiast ically in partnership with agencies in identifying problems and seeking solutions and that the process can help to build communities which are more informed, aware and thoughtful about child protection. Although the presence of risk factors, such as a poor environment or unsupportive relationships with primary caregivers, or being looked after outside the family, increases the likelihood of a negative outcome for the individual, studies of competence and resilience have shown that, regardless of background, children are generally resourceful. Competence has been shown to be a mediating variable that predicts positive or negative outcomes (Smith, Cowie, Blades, 2001; 569).

Graduation Speech -- Graduation Speech, Commencement Address

South African Archbishop Desmond Tutu wrote, "You are a very special person - become what you are." These words encourage us, the graduating class of 2012, to recognize the goodness and potential in each and every one of us and to go out and excel in the world. We are a diverse group of different aspirations and backgrounds, bound for different corners of the earth to carve out our won individual niches. Before we leave behind Lee Falls High School and each other, we must ask ourselves how we have become who we are. Most of us have grown up in this town. We have known each other for many years, gone through the school system and interacted with the community. We have been labeled by the press as inhabitants of "Cranktown" and "Methville," but the community has rallied to fight the problem. This same community is the true spirit of where we come from and who we are. It is the same community that sees generations of change and is always willing to stretch its hands out to help those in need and to honor those deserving. We live in a unique community, though we may not realize it, a...

Mechanisms of LSD :: Biology Essays Research Papers

Mechanisms of LSD: a Glimpse into the Serotonergic System In 1938, Albert Hoffman discovered, invented a substance that would revolutionize the American drug culture forever and would change how we, as psychologists and biologists, thought about psychosis. That substance was LSD. A simple molecule, LSD has the potency that no other drug has. Only a drop will produce the desired hallucinations and euphoria. In addition, it does not seem to be physically addicting, although tolerance to the drug can develop in as few as three days but disappears after week of abstinence. Much 'research' has been done into the actual effects of the drug. LSD most profound effect on behavior is the production of sensory distortions, such as hallucinations, and euphoria. It also produces dilated pupils, increased blood pressure, and increased heart rate (7, 9). However, little is know about the mechanisms by which it acts. It is known that LSD affects the serotonergic system in the brain. However, the actual ways in which it acts on that system to modify behavior remains unclear. Before we explore the current research into LSD, it may be helpful to review some of the ways in which serotonin affects behavior. Serotonin (also called 5-HT) is a neurotransmitter that is produced from tryptophan. Although serotonin is only produced by a small number of neurons (1000's), each of those neurons innervates as many as 500,000 other neurons (3,12). For the most part, these neurons originate in the Locus Coerleus (LC) and the Raphe Nuclei (RN) (12). The LC controls the release of n orepinephrine, a neurotransmitter/hormone that regulates the sympathetic NS. It also has neurons that extend into the cerebellum, thalamus, hypothalamus, cerebral cortex, and hippocampus (12). The RN extends its projections into the brainstem and up into the brain (12). It has been suggested that neurons in this region of the brain may be responsible for the inhibition of sensation, thus "protecting the brain from sensory overload." (12) The fact that these two regions innervate virtually every part of the brain shows that serotonin can activate large portions of the brain from a relatively small area of origination. Serotonin seems to have an inhibitory effect on these neurons (1, 12). Thus, it would decrease the occurrence and frequency of action potentials in the neurons that it innervates. Because of this, it produces neural activity (of lack of activity) that are in some way an inhibition of behavior. Mechanisms of LSD :: Biology Essays Research Papers Mechanisms of LSD: a Glimpse into the Serotonergic System In 1938, Albert Hoffman discovered, invented a substance that would revolutionize the American drug culture forever and would change how we, as psychologists and biologists, thought about psychosis. That substance was LSD. A simple molecule, LSD has the potency that no other drug has. Only a drop will produce the desired hallucinations and euphoria. In addition, it does not seem to be physically addicting, although tolerance to the drug can develop in as few as three days but disappears after week of abstinence. Much 'research' has been done into the actual effects of the drug. LSD most profound effect on behavior is the production of sensory distortions, such as hallucinations, and euphoria. It also produces dilated pupils, increased blood pressure, and increased heart rate (7, 9). However, little is know about the mechanisms by which it acts. It is known that LSD affects the serotonergic system in the brain. However, the actual ways in which it acts on that system to modify behavior remains unclear. Before we explore the current research into LSD, it may be helpful to review some of the ways in which serotonin affects behavior. Serotonin (also called 5-HT) is a neurotransmitter that is produced from tryptophan. Although serotonin is only produced by a small number of neurons (1000's), each of those neurons innervates as many as 500,000 other neurons (3,12). For the most part, these neurons originate in the Locus Coerleus (LC) and the Raphe Nuclei (RN) (12). The LC controls the release of n orepinephrine, a neurotransmitter/hormone that regulates the sympathetic NS. It also has neurons that extend into the cerebellum, thalamus, hypothalamus, cerebral cortex, and hippocampus (12). The RN extends its projections into the brainstem and up into the brain (12). It has been suggested that neurons in this region of the brain may be responsible for the inhibition of sensation, thus "protecting the brain from sensory overload." (12) The fact that these two regions innervate virtually every part of the brain shows that serotonin can activate large portions of the brain from a relatively small area of origination. Serotonin seems to have an inhibitory effect on these neurons (1, 12). Thus, it would decrease the occurrence and frequency of action potentials in the neurons that it innervates. Because of this, it produces neural activity (of lack of activity) that are in some way an inhibition of behavior.